Osamu Dazai Essay

Osamu Dazai was one of Japanese novelist and considered one of the most important storytellers of postwar Japan. While known primarily as a novelist, Dazai also earned recognition for his numerous short stories, including â€Å"Omoide† (â€Å"Memories†), â€Å"Sarugashima† (â€Å"Monkey Island†), and â€Å"Ha† (â€Å"Leaves†), which were published in Bannen, his first collection of short stories. Like most of his longer fiction, Dazai’s short stories are autobiographical and reflect a troubled life marred by alcoholism, drug addiction, and several suicide attempts. Nevertheless, Dazai’s fiction showcases his artistic imagination and unique confessional narrative technique. Dazai was born the youngest of ten children in Kanagi, a small town in northern Japan, to one of the wealthiest families in the region. While Dazai’s later years were turbulent, he grew up a sensitive child in comfortable surroundings. Later in his life , however, his wealthy background led to self-consciousness, contributing to a nagging sense of isolation that is an undercurrent throughout his fiction. Dazai underwent his apprenticeship in writing during the 1920s while attending secondary schools in Aomori and Hirosaki and published many of his early stories in magazines founded and run by aspiring young authors. By the time he attended Hirosaki Higher School, however, Dazai began to live the unconventional lifestyle that brought him much fame. Despite his widely recognized talent, however, alcoholism, drug addiction, affairs with geishas, suicide attempts, and frequent psychological traumas plagued him the rest of his life. In 1930, Dazai enrolled in the Department of French Literature at Tokyo University, but by the end of his first year, he ceased attending classes. Instead, Dazai became involved with left-wing politics, caroused, and renewed his relationship with a geisha he met while attending Hirosaki Higher School. His family disapproved of this relationship, leading to one of Dazai’s suicide attempts. He attempted to take his own life on at least three other occasions and finally succeeded in a double suicide with a young war widow in 1948. This episode, among several instances of double suicide in Dazai’s fiction, is retold in his widely acclaimed novel, No Longer Human. Dazai’s highly autobiographical fiction first garnered popular and critical attention after the publication of his first collection, Bannen (The Final Years). The first and most significant of these stories is â€Å"Omoide† (â€Å"Memories†). With its highly personal tone, â€Å"Memories† reveals a common narrative technique in Dazai’s writing. Revealing his childhood and adolescent traumas, as well as his need for companionship and love, Dazai’s first-person narrative attracts the reader’s sympathy while raising doubts about the authenticity of the narration beca use of exaggerated rhetoric. â€Å"Gangu† (â€Å"Toys†), another tale in Bannen, illustrates Dazai’s playfulness. In this tale, the narrator — after briefly relating his financial troubles — details his plans to concoct a tale recounting the memories of an infant. While these and other early pieces exemplify the personal tone of much of Dazai’s work, another group of tales shows his talent for imaginative storytelling. Two tales — â€Å"Gyofukuki,† translated as â€Å"Metamorphosis,† and â€Å"Sarugashima,† translated as â€Å"Monkey Island† — provide good examples of this. In place of the Dazai like protagonist present throughout most of his other short fiction; â€Å"Metamorphosis† is about a peasant girl who, on the verge of puberty, takes on the appearance and identity of a fish. â€Å"Monkey Island† presents two humanoid monkeys as its protagonists. In astonishment, one of the monkeys soon realizes they are the objects of attention, rather than the spectators, of the humans walking through the zoo. In his final years, he composed a series of stories that evince his interest in domestic issues, as titles such as â€Å"Villon’s Wife,† â€Å"Father,† and â€Å"Family Happiness†Ã¢â‚¬â€suggest. As critics have remarked, the stories of these collections are among the few works of artistic value produced by a Japanese author under the strict government censorship during World War II. While famous in Japan and avidly read — especially by the younger generation — Dazai has not achieved the international stature of Japanese writers such as Natsume Sseki, Kawabata Yasunari, Mishima Yukio, and End Shusaku. This is partly due to problems with translating Dazai’s highly personal style. Yet Dazai has earned himself a position in modern Japanese letters more or less comparable to that of an F. Scott Fitzgerald, as opposed to a William Faulkner, in modern American literature. Donald Keene, Dazai’s principal English translator, has described him as a Japanese writer â€Å"who emerged at the end of World War II as the literary voice of his time.† While Dazai’s body of work is sometimes criticized for its narrow scope, many critics maintain that h is fiction contains some of the most beautiful prose in modern Japanese literature. Dazai became celebrated for two short novels, The Setting Sun and No Longer Human, both translated into English. I read both of them back when I was reading all the Japanese fiction I could get my hands on, but did not care for either, and have not read either again. The Setting Sun was published in 1947, and is set in those years shortly after the end of the war. It was a very popular novel, and the title came to represent Japanese of the upper classes who had fallen because of the war and American occupation. But Dazai was already well known for personal characteristics reflected in the major characters as well–nihilism, drunken dissipation, despair (a kind of model for our hippie generation)–so, although the central character is a young woman, Kazuko, the novel is read as strongly autobiographical. This is true for No Longer Human, too, which is perhaps even more autobiographical, and, as Donald Keene describes it, is â€Å"an attack on the habits and traditions of Japanese society, but above all †¦ a record of his alienation from society.† (1063) I was not attracted to the narcissistic qualities in these two novels, or to the fact that Dazai, after having failed in two previous love suicides (in which the women succeeded) succeeded in a love suicide June 13, 1948 (he and the woman drowned in the Tamagawa Reservoir). I just didn’t much like him or his characters–never used those novels in courses I taught. But I did use one of his short stories, Villon’s Wife, several times, because it was in the anthology I most frequently used in the survey course of Japanese Literature, Donald Keene’s Modern Japanese Literature, and I actually came to like that story very much (sort of like Oe’s The Catch, the exception that proves the rule). The husband in the story may be the closest self-portrait of all, and the most despicable, in his drunken dissipation, unfaithfulness, and unforgivable treatment of his wife, but the story is told by the wife, who, in her attempts to accommodate herself to all of this comes through as an attractive and courageous character–and you realize that even Dazai, in his more sober moments perhaps, must have appreciated her virtues. Anyway, that’s the one I recommend–then, if you want to read either, or both, of the novels, you will be reading fiction that was very popular in Japan in the decade after the end of the war, and may, indeed, reflect some of the values in flux in that traumatic time, particularly for young Japanese who would have seen themselves as having lost everything. I will be comparing Akutagawa to Edgar Allan Poe next month for their short lives and some of the qualities of their fiction, and it is easy to compare Dazai to Akutagawa (1892-1927), as well . Akutagawa was more of Tanizaki’s generation, but died in his late 30s, as a suicide, as Dazai did. But, I am happy to say, I am very fond of Akutagawa–a highly disciplined literary artist. (MAIN BODY) â€Å"NO LONGER HUMAN† This book, by Osamu Dazai, is an example of the Japanese genre of shishosetsu, a kind of autobiographical fiction. It’s different from what we think of as autobiography, in that the purpose is not so much to tell a story – there is no real emplotment, beginning, middle, end in the traditional (or Aristotelian) sense, but rather, the text is a sort of rambling exploration of the self. Style is de-prioritized, sincerity and immediacy are tantamount. There is no constrained form, but rather, an attempt to establish a direct link between author and reader, to explain a particular perspective. The book is largely autobiographical, based on events from Dazai’s own life. He was a literary rock star, but a deeply miserable guy, attempting suicide several times before finally succeeding. There’s actually a monument at the spot where he killed himself (along with his mistress), and apparently people gather there on the anniversary of his death every year. In any case, the book itself is interesting. It makes me want to learn Japanese, for starters, because no matter how great the translator, there’s no getting around the fact that the grammatical structure of Japanese is completely different from that of English, most importantly, for this book perhaps, in that it is entirely possible, and even common, to construct a sentence in Japanese with no subject. Apparently the entire book is written in this form, which would be particularly appropriate to the work itself. Though I wonder if the Japanese reader would really think of this as particularly artful, given that it’s apparently a standard thing to them. But I guess that’s a question for psycho-linguists to answer. The book is the related story of a very unhappy guy who is essentially chronicling his downward spiral. Though it’s hard to say if it’s really a downward spiral – though he does pinpoint a moment at which he ceased to be human, itâ €™s not entirely clear that he was ever really human (by his own definition) to begin with. One question is what it means, in his eyes, to be human. There is a clear parallel to Notes from the Underground (Dazai was big into Dostoevsky, and the main character refers to Crime and Punishment), in that both are notes from deeply unhappy men who are convinced of their own uniqueness, but there are definitely differences. Dostoevsky’s character is raging against rationality, and the way in which it dehumanizes people, so in a sense, though he calls himself a mouse, etc, he could be seen as claiming that he is really the only human. Dazai’s character, Yozo, sees himself as inhuman, mainly, it seems, because he lacks certain basic human traits. He claims, for instance, that he has never felt hungry. However, there is also a certain issue of domination at play – he is unable to say no to anyone, to turn down anything. In this sense, one could say that he is entirely determined by the outside world. Despite the fact that he has an inner life, he keeps it hidden from the outside world. In fact, his behavior is entirely, he claims, an act, he â€Å"plays the clown† for the amusement of others, refusing to let his own feelings show. But I’m not certain if this is really the case. For instance, he wants to be an artist, and actually disobeys his father in order to pursue his artistic career, and confesses to the other authority figure in his life, Flatfish, that he wants to make art. So it seems as though the masking process is incomplete in this case, and at times he does behave authentically. I wonder if the same could be said for the Underground Man? I think that it’s slightly different in his case, in that the construction of the Underground Man is such that he can’t behave authentically, because he has no stable self. Yozo, on the other hand, certainly has an inner life, it’s just a rather empty one. He doesn’t seem to have any real will of his own, or rather, the will that he does have is purely towards self-destruction – he can get booze and drugs, and drink himself into a stupor, without any difficulties. But then again, he also seems to have a brief lull of happiness, directly following his marriage. But even there, it’s hard to say if he’s happy. Maybe it’s most accurate to say that he is so constructed as to be incapable of happiness? Hmmm. There’s more thinking to be done here. Unfortunately, I seem to like each Dazai Osamu (1909-1948) book less than the previous one. No Longer Human (Ningen Shikkaku, 1948) is more epigrammatic that The Setting Sun (Shayo, 1947), but perhaps I am too old for it (as I was once too young to read Proust) to be much moved for the plaint of a creature too delicate for the world. I can’t muster sociological interest in it as social history of the 30s either, since dissipitation is basically timeless (though the preferred means vary). I read the epilogue differently from translator and longtime Columbia professor Donald Keene: as showing the notebook’s writer was successful at mimicking good nature, not that his widow is right and the writer wrong. (â€Å"In the way that most men fail to see their own cruelty, Yozo had not noticed his gentleness and capacity for love†-p. 9; really? a capacity for love? and gentleness? or solipsism mixed with diffidence?) I am not so sure that Keene was right that the Japanese â€Å"are certainly much more like Americans than they are like their ancestors of one hundred years ago. As far as literature is concerned, the break with the Japanese past is almost complete† (p. 7), though this is more credible now than it was six decades ago. Dazai seems very traditionally Japanese to me in many ways, a descendant of Sei Shà ´nagon both in wit and to some degree in aesthetics (Dazai is still plenty delicate and fairly indirect, even about what she would have considered vulgar and even sordid matters, very regretful and very perishable). Would Keene have been moved to translate Dazai, if there was nothing of the Japanese tradition that Keene venerates in Dazai? Let alone, recall translating Dazai â€Å"as if I were writing a book of my own,† an experience he only otherwise had with Kenkà ´Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s Essays in Idleness (On Familiar Terms, p. 189). I like Keene’s characterization of Yozo as a man â€Å"who is orphaned from his fellows by their refusal to take him seriously† (p. 8, see p. 139), which in turn is a result of his desperate clowni ng. Of course, this resonates with my experience of people not believing I could possibly be serious when I am, and feeling I’m not like other people, incapable of â€Å"getting by.† And â€Å"unusual or extravagant things tempt me† (p. 23). It is interesting that someone who felt himself different from an early age and for whom â€Å"it would be no exaggeration to say that my only playmates while I was growing up were girls† (48) became a diffident lady-killer rather than a homosexual. Ã…Å'ba cannot forget his abuse by a female servant when he was young. In high school, he played the buffoon. At university, he finds bad influence from Horiki and leads a life of debauchery (nonstop smoking, alcohol abuse, promiscuity), culminating in a double suicide (it cannot seriously be billed a â€Å"love suicide†) in which the married woman drowns and he survives. After being expelled from the university, Ã…Å'ba is â€Å"clan and sober† for a time in a relationship with an innocent young woman, but Horki shows up and leads Ã…Å'ba back into temptation, now adding morphine to alcohol abuse and being incarcerated in a mental asylum, where he is numb rather than violent. As for being zombified by Japan’s defeat, Dazai seems to me to have been as self-destructive and intellectually nihilistic while the Japanese Empire was rising as in the general anomie after Emperor Hirohito renounced divinity and the US occupied the archipelago. (Imamura’s â€Å"Pigs and Battleships† show some of this social breakdown and women who were better at surviving it than the men.) The original publication sold more than six million copies in Japan, more than any Japanese novel other than Kokoro (1914) by SÃ… seki Natsume. A manga version was published in 2009, the centenary of Dasai’s birth, and also filmed. (CONCLUSION) Attending Meiji Gakuin University from the age 15 to 19, Toson gradually became aware of literature under the influence of unconventional traditions of the school. Toson literature is even said to originate during his days at the university. Toson joined Bungakukai, a literary group, and as a romantic poet, published a collection of poems including Wakanashu. Later, Toson turned a novelist and published Hakai (â€Å"The Broken Commandment†) and Haru (â€Å"Spring†), and is thus regarded as a prominent naturalist novelist. His other works include, Ie (â€Å"Family†), considered to have achieved the highest level in Japanese Naturalism literature, Shinsei (â€Å"New life†), a confession of his own incestuous relationship with his niece, Yoakemae (â€Å"Before the Dawn†), a historical novel modeled on the life of his father. Altbough he began his serialization of Tohonomon (â€Å"The Gate of the East†) in 1943, he died of a stroke at his own hom e in Oiso, Kanagawa prefecture on 22nd of August. (BIBLIOGRAPHY LIST) Dazai, Osamu, and Donald Keene. No Longer Human. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1981. Print. Lyons, Phyllis I., and Osamu Dazai. The Saga of Dazai Osamu: a Critical Study with Translations. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1985. Print. Hachimaki, Emi. â€Å"ä º ºÃ©â€"“å ¤ ±Ã¦   ¼.† é â€™Ã§ © ºÃ¦â€"‡å º «Ã£â‚¬â‚¬Aozora Bunko. Aozora, 1 Jan. 1999. Web. 15 Nov. 2011. . (REFERENCE) http://kirjasto.sci.fi/dazai.htm http://www.jlit.net/authors_works/dazai_osamu.html http://wlc.drake.edu/wordpress/japanese/2010/02/28/osamu-dazai%E3%80%80%E5%A4%AA%E5%AE%B0%E6%B2%BB%EF%BC%89/

Nursing Home Adminstrator Essay

As an administrator of a nursing home, the facility had just received announcement that the association is being purchased by a national group. As of a new policy to be implemented, a number of the populace will be displaced. Some of this populace have difficulty communicating, have no family that is close, and have not indicated that they support the reasonable of their medical information. Preparations are required to be made for these individuals. Before making any preparations for these patients, there are quite a few factors in place; such as communication methods with patients. We must take notice that every patient is diverse, and each patient communicates on different levels or none. We must not remember that communication is a progression that will engage exchange of information, judgment and emotions. The types of communication that can be used in this condition in dealing with patients that have complexity parallel or have troubles in decision making would be, oral and Nonverbal. Verbal communication would involve speaking plain and in non ruthless tone. Which is required to every condition no matter if the patients in consistent or not. Non-verbal is a communication approach that can be used on patients that are hearing impaired and mute. This would take account of using body language, sign language, signboards, and even sketches or paintings. We also need to acquire notice in communicating with further facilities, doctors, and health care providers. The advantages in traditional methods of communicating; public were more on a individual base by having face to face consultation, phone calls, postal letters, and everything was documented by hand. The disadvantage to this would be: loss of documents, calling the wrong provider or patient and releasing personal health information (PHI) to the wrong person. The most significant advantage in this characteristic would be that patients and providers be more on an agreeable level. There are advantages and disadvantages of using traditional, electronic, and social media for health care communication. Social media these years can lift responsiveness, and expand knowledge of a topic. Traditional communication and social media may not be able to meet up the entire communication goals that are individual addressed, or be able to objective all of the audience’s requirements that are being requested. Due to the current outburst of negative side effects that have been reported to the national drug manufacturer there are numerous ways that will reach out to the media in circumstances to the situation at hand. There are traditional, electronic, and social media forms of communication all at each will be provided for the proper information.

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Exposure - creative personal writing Essay Example for Free

Exposure creative personal writing Essay A quick, stealthy character moves across the office, photocopying top secret files. The information was very damaging stuff. He leaves as quickly as he enters. Who is this person? Why does he want this information? Will the press get hold of it? The Rayman walked down an alley, on the way to his hide-out. He was a short man, who had brown hair with flecks of grey. In places he was going bald, he had shaven his hair very short. He had a well shaven beard. His face was an average face with brown eyes. He wore brown trousers, with black shoes. On the top he wore a brown, well-ironed polo shirt. Over it he wore a leather jacket. When he was around people he walked with a limp. This hid his true identity. He got to his house, flicked on the televison to the news. He now heard about a break in at 10 Downing Street. Also he heard about the top secret documents that have been stolen. The next day he decided he wants these secret documents. He needed a team of mastermind criminals to work with. He got one of his closest colleagues, Rumbo. His plan was to get arrested with all these other mastermind criminals. He and his colleagues have been informed about a truck transporting guns around for the army. The Rayman and Rumbo were on the trail of the truck. The truck took a left down a empty road. The Rayman put his foot on the accelerator and zoomed past the truck then did a handbrake turn straight in front of the truck. The two of them jumped out of the car with their balaclavas on. They were both holding automatic shotguns, with the barrels sawn off. The Rayman opened the door on the drivers side and blew the drivers head off. Rumbo did the same to the passenger. The Rayman put the bodies in the back and started the truck up while Rumbo drove the other car off. The two of them met up again on the edge of the of the river. Here they moved all the guns from the truck into the car. Quickly they set light to the truck and pushed it into the river. Next, they drove back to the Raymans warehouse and offloaded the guns and hid them under the floor boards. Now they blew their car up. There was now no hard evidence on them. One of the biggest police investigations took place to find the murders. The police arrested the Rayman, along with Peat, The Accountant and Amen. The four were put in a cell together. It was here the Rayman put the proposal to them of getting the document. Peat and The Accountant thought it was a great idea. The problem was that Amen was going straight. Over the next two hours they tried to explain that it was good idea to get the documents. Amens girlfriend was a very good lawyer and got the four of them out quicker than the Rayman expected. Once out the Rayman cornered down Amen. At first Amen was reluctant to join the group. After a few slaps and a good two hours Amen was persuaded to join the group. Amen went home told his girlfriend that he was going to London to get these files. She decided to leave him. This filled Amen with rage against the Rayman. The next day the four of them went on a road trip to London. In London the four of them met up with some of their contacts. They met up at Ventura Hill at 8pm. Jack and Jill had followed them here from Liverpool and were watching them. The contacts told them of this up and coming gangster, the Shadow. He was one of the best thieves in England. The group were informed by Rumbo about a drug shipment, to a rival gang leader Jack the Hat. They contacted the Shadow and ask him to help them steal the drugs. The shadow was extremely keen to work with the hardcore gangsters. Jack and Jill found out about their plans and had the police lined up to arrest everyone, at the ship. Meanwhile Rumbo had come down to help and supply the guns. They were ready to attack the ship and infiltrated the ship through the cargo hole. The Rayman told Amen to stay out of the action and hide in the boxes. The Shadow shot the first person. Soon after that the gunfight opened up and it was a dangerous place. The Rayman followed the Shadow. When they where alone he attacked the shadow and got him to tell him where the secret documents were. Tell me where the documents are before I blast you to the pearly gates says the Rayman. Theyre in a sailing boat says the Shadow. WHICH ONE? says the Rayman. Enterprise K40421, at the mariner says the Shadow. Bang! the Rayman shoots the Shadow in the head. Then the police turn up and arrest everyone who is alive. The only person left is the Rayman, who got out and hide near the ship. When the Rayman was arrested he used his real name David Edwards. The good thing was that David Edwards had no criminal record to give the police a harder time. The only witness left was a dying captain and all he could say was Rayman, Rayman. The polices first question was, What happened. The story David Edwards told goes something like this. Have you heard of the Shadow? Well he was the one who stole the secret documents. The Rayman had the idea of getting them off him. He told us the idea when we all were arrested. says David Edwards. So who was the Rayman? says Jack. Amen, he said he was going straight so it would be less likely it was him. Anyway, I went along because I had no choice in the matter. The plan was to attack this ship bringing in drugs. While doing this the Rayman will get the secret documents and a lot of drugs. While doing this I hid behind some boxes so as not to get involved says David Edwards So you just got mixed up with the group because we arrested you? Well, I only have one choice, to let you go, says Jack. David Edwards walks out the police station. Then straight away stops walking with a limp. He gets into a cab and goes to the mariner. Here he finds Enterprise K40421. Under the front he finds a brief case. There is no code to put in. He presses the two buttons, Click, Click. On the top of the brief case in big writing is a sign, which says Have a nice day. Kaboom.

Disease trends of the delivery healthcare systems Essay Example for Free

Disease trends of the delivery healthcare systems Essay Advances in global health and science have assisted the disease trends. It has become a never ending mission to protect public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease as well as injury and disability. There have been noted demographic changes in the past 50 years that have resulted from changing trends in child, maternal, and adult death rates (CDC, 2011). Among these are rises in obesity and aging. As these health concerns continue to climb we will have a greater impact on the delivery of services from health care. The importance of these trends assists in prevention and protecting one’s self from new diseases and illnesses as well as old ones. One of the noted trends in healthcare is aging. Focusing on the world’s age composition is one way to understand the impacts and changes in further years to come. According to the US Census Bureau (2013), the elderly population age 65 and older during the twentieth century composed one in every twenty five individuals. In the twenty first century, this same population composed one in every 8 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). This showed that the life expectancy of humans has become longer. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2013), the population in the United States in the year of 2010 was 308.7 million. This indicated a near 10 percent increase over the past ten years. This same 2010 census showed that the elderly population composed 13 percent as opposed to only being 9 percent in the year of 2000. The notable change was determined that there were fewer people in the 65-75 age range but there were more individuals in the 75-85 age ranges. It proved that there were more increasingly elderly individuals reaching into their seventies and even eighties. This increase in age showed that life expectancy and advances in medicine have contributed to individuals living longer lives. This would indicate that as long as medicines and healthcare continued to advance, so would the elderly population in growth. Environmental factors directly contribute to population growth. For one, as the population continues to grow in size, the  natural resources and undeveloped land becomes utilized to accommodate this expansion. Clearing the land and making it more desirable offers more room to continue additions in the population. This in turn offers an increase in the resources that can be utilized for healthcare and science in the creation of vaccines and medications. This increased development has also led to the finding of new resources such as unknown species of plants and animals. These newer found resources can be tested to see if they offer any properties in the expansion of healthcare and medications. The Medical Plant Consortium (2013) states, â€Å"Our major goal in this project has been to capture blue prints of medicinal plants for the advancement of drug discovery and development.† The medical plant consortium further adds well known medicines such as digoxin used for cardiac muscle stimulation comes from the fox glove plant and some of the chemotherapy medications such as vinchristine come from the periwinkle plant. Another noted environmental factor is that the population density has grown over the years. In addition to the population growth, land clearing has been increasing for the purpose of crops farmed for human consumption. The combination of needed developed land for farm crops and the growing population has only contributed to more land being cleared for further discoveries. Some of the changing demographics have been an increase in the population density. Over the years due to advancements in medications and healthcare improving the human life expectancy, th ere is an indicated increase of individuals per square mile than years prior. This is due to the slow development of land but also human life expectancy increasing. January 2011 ushered in the first of approximately 77 million baby boomers born from 1946 through 1964 and surging towards the gates of retirement. Each year 3.5 baby boomers turn 55.† This increase indicates that by 2030 there will be more than twice in the elderly population that in the year 2000 (Transgenerational, 2009). The aging trend is likely to experience an increase in the health issues of today. As we live longer there is more wear and tear to our bodies that developed the need for further medical assistance. As we age our blood vessels and arteries become stiffer causing the heart to have to work harder to function. The longer the heart has to function under this strain, the more likely complications will occur. These factors are directly linked to high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases. In addition with aging,  ones bones tend to lose bone mass. This not only weakens t hem increasing the risk for fracture but effects muscle function. Over time muscles lose flexibility and strength. These factors contribute to arthritis. According to the CDC (2013), one of ever two persons will knee arthritis and one in every four will develop hip arthritis. This clearly supports that disease and illness will become more likely as we age. In order to reduce health related problems in aging one should remain fit and incorporate an exercise regimen into their daily life. In addition eating a healthy diet, not smoking, managing stress and taking a daily supplement can help prolong age related diseases (CDC, 2013). Currently the obesity rate in the United States is nearly two of every three persons (Surgeon general, 2009). Research has shown that the united states have the highest population of obesity. A report done from July 2013 shown that the united stated passed the obesity rates of Mexico (Medical News Today, 2013). The U.S. obesity rate has grown from 13 percent in 1960 to 32 percent in 2004 (surgeon general, 2009). References: 1- Centers of Disease Control (CDC), 2010. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/distrnds.html 2- Department of Health and Human services, 2012. http://www.aoa.gov/AoARoot/Aging_Statistics/index.aspx 3- U.S. Census Bureau, 2013. http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/statbriefs/agebrief.html 4- U.S. Census Bureau, 2011. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-03.pdf 5- PHYS.org, 2013. http://phys.org/news/2011-12-medicinal-benefits.html 6- Transgenerational- design matters, 2009. http://transgenerational.org/aging/demographics.htm 7- Mayo clinic, 2013. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/aging/HA00040 8- Surgeon general, 2009. http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/news/testimony/obesity07162003.html 9- Medical News Today, 2013. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/265556.php

Factors Influencing Medical Students in Career Choices

Factors Influencing Medical Students in Career Choices Study of Factors Influencing Medical Students in their Choice of Career Introduction What makes medicine such a sort-after field? Medicine today is a very highly regarded profession which is well compensated, provides excellent job security and has the opportunity to have a positive influence on the lives of many people1. Success in medicine requires hard work and application, both while learning and when entering practice2. However, it brings great rewards in terms of job satisfaction and the range of career opportunities within the profession3. Learning about and practicing medicine is also very pleasing, involving as it does a blend of human interactions and applied science2. The environment in which different types of medicine are practiced is rich and diverse and obviously continually changing, and doctors continue to learn throughout their working lives. That is why the students interested in medicine should have the capacity for, and interest in, a lifetime of learning about this fascinating subject. To get the most out of the course a student need to be a keen scientist, with a sound scientific understanding and determination and also an ability to cope up with the demands and pressures of early clinical training3. But are they actually aware of the high demands of this prestigious professional course Do they have a realistic understanding of what a career in medicine will involve? We often wonder, is it the genuine passion for the subject and the genuine interest to be of service to the mankind that make students do medicine or is it just their parents!!! This study gives us the opportunity to find out the factors that drove students to do medicine. If choosing the medical profession is not hard enough, medical students have an even bigger hurdle ahead of them, which is choosing their line of specialisation. Many factors affect the career choices of graduating medicalstudents. Influences such as strong mentors, formativeacademic and non-academic experiences, and career counselingcan all help aspiring physicians select their particular careers4.Similarly, market trends, self-perception of strengths and weaknesses,and anticipated lifestyle can also affect career choice5. It has often been questioned, is gender really an issue? Does money influence ones decisions? Or is it competition?! A large number of specialising fields and over 50 career options are available in medicine, assuring a medical graduate of finding a profession. But how many medical students are actually aware of these career options? As mentioned earlier, medical profession brings great rewards in terms of job satisfaction and a variety of career opportunities. However, like any job, there are parts of a doctors work that are frustrating, undesirable, and even repetitive or boring. Studies show that doctors work far more hours than the average U.S. professional and cope with large amounts of stress and pressure6. Managed care has made it more difficult for U.S doctors to practice as they see fit and limit the amount of time that they can spend with patients. In fact, for some doctors, the upsides of the profession arent worth the sacrifice and hassles of the modern health-care environment4. This has lead to doctors with long and potentially bright careers to hang up their stethoscopes and quit! But is this the case when it comes to medical students in India? What makes them leave medicine despite the fact that theres a shortage of doctors making a ratio of one doctor per 1,634 people in India which is considered to be extremely below the ideal standard of doctor-people ratio?7,8 Medical students attitude towards various clinical fields and post graduation has been a major focus of study in the U.S as well as in the United Kingdom, yet there have been very few studies and surveys done on the career choices of Indian medical students. Hence, little is known about career intentions or attitudes of medical students in India. This study aims to reporton the career intentions and attitudes of first and second year medical students. It gives us the opportunity to discover the factors that influence the medical students on their career choices. The study also shows how exposure to more clinically oriented medical professions will affect the choice of careers in medical students. Aims and Objectives The study aims to find out factors that influence the choice of career of medical students Objectives To find out the reasons for students to take up medicine as a course of further studies. To compare career intentions of 1st year medical students, early in their training, with 2nd year medical students of Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, in relation to various socio-demographic correlates. To compare findings from the 2nd year batch with those from a similar survey conducted on the same batch last year. Methodology   We conducted a survey in the study setting of KMC Mangalore with the total study population of 393 MBBS students, which consisted of 216 1st year and 177 2nd year students. It was a cross sectional study which lasted from the dates of March 7th to March 14th, 2008. Data was collected through a pilot studied semi-structured questionnaire. The outline of the questionnaire was designed after referring to questionnaires used in similar studies like ours. Certain changes such as clearing any non-specific questions and adding more questions which seemed relevant to our study were made. Permission was obtained from the Associate Dean Dr. M.V. Prabhu and respective teachers. Then questionnaires were given out to consenting students. Collected data was tabulated and analyzed by using SPSS version 10 software. Results obtained were presented on tables and graphs wherever appropriate. Lastly the test of significance was carried out using χ2 test on tables in which we thought there would be significant values. Results The total study sample was 393 students, comprising of 216 1st year students and 177 2nd year students. The response rate among the 1st and 2nd year students was 98.18% and 100% respectively. Gender 1st Year (n=216) 2nd Year (n=177) Total (n=393) Male 94 (43.5%) 103 (58.2%) 197 (50.1%) Female 117 (54.2%) 71 (40.1%) 188 (47.8%) Table 2: Baseline Characteristics 1st Year (n=216) 2nd Year (n=177) Total (n=393) Schooling: Abroad 30 (13.9%) 43 (24.3%) 73 (18.6%) In India 170 (78.7%) 121 (68.4%) 291 (74%) Both 16 (7.4%) 9 (5.1%) 25 (6.4%) Before MBBS: School 121 (56%) 95 (50.7%) 216 (55%) Degree 5 (2.3%) 4 (2.25%) 9 (2.3%) Dropped 68 (31.5%) 50 (28.2%) 118 (30%) Others 19 (8.8%) 25 (14.1%) 44 (11.2%) Majority of the participants have done their schooling solely in India (74%). 55% of the respondents joined directly after school, whereas 30% dropped a year or 2 before joining college. 2.3% of the students had completed a degree prior to joining college. Both 1st year and 2nd year students chose the medical profession because they had a passion for the medical field. It seems that very few 2nd year students were forced by their parents (3.4%) as compared to the 1st year students (4.6%). On the other hand, there are very few students in the 1st year that chose medicine for job security (1.9%) unlike the 2nd year students who had a higher percentage of 15.3%. Job security parents insistence were the most unlikely reasons for 1st year 2nd year students respectively (Table 3). When asked about their future line of plan, had it not been MBBS, more than 100 students who responded in the OTHERS category specified that they would join ONLY MBBS. As expected, most students (37.2%) felt that they would join engineering had they not been in MBBS. This may possibly be due to the fact that Mathematics is a compulsory subject during pre-university college. Paramedical/Allied Health Sciences were the least sought-after fields which were chosen by the 1st 2nd year students respectively (Table 4). Interestingly, ALL 1st year students wanted to pursue a PG degree while 4% of the 2nd year students DID NOT want to go in for post graduation perhaps due to the exposure to clinical postings? Both 1st and the 2nd year students seemed widely interested in doing an MD/MS (91.7% 86.4% respectively), with the next popular choice being MRCP/MRCS with only 7.4% 6.2% of 1st 2nd year students considering it . Even with the very little information they have, 86.6% of 1st year students wanted to go in for a clinical field 12.5% of the students could not decide about their choice of career, whereas 0.93% decided for a non-clinical field. Among the 2nd year students, 84.2% of the students decided for a clinical field, 7.9% having not decided yet 2.3% for a non-clinical field. This trend of more students opting for a clinical field may be due to the exposure to clinical postings during the 2nd year (Table 5). When asked about going in for super-specialization, 79.6% of 1st year students 64.4% of 2nd year students answered on the affirmative, 13.4% 25.4% answered against it while 6.9% 10.2% said they had not decided yet (Table 6). The general trend among 1st year students is to take up a career in surgery (40.7%) whereas for 2nd year students it is medicine (24.9%). The least sought after fields are Anaesthesiology for 1st year students ENT for 2nd year students (Table 7). Regarding non-clinical fields, Forensic Medicine is the most preferred non-clinical field among 1st years (5.1%) where as post-graduation research is more popular among 2nd years (2.8%) (Table 8). According to the data, there is no significant difference between male and female students choice of career with relation to choosing a clinical or a non-clinical field. 90.9% of the males 88.5% of the females taking the survey thought it would be a clinical field they would like to pursue (Table 9). When asked if there was a chance that the respondents would not be able to pursue the career of their choice, most students felt that Competition remained the major hurdle ahead of them. 27.3% of 1st year students 29.4% of 2nd year students felt that the stiff competition they face would stop them from going in for the career of their choice (Table 10). Majority of the 1st 2nd year students prefer to practice medicine in their own countries, rather than in a foreign country. This may possibly be due to the fact that most relatives kin are in their own country also, due to the possibility of an already functional medical set-up in the family. 33.3% of 1st year 26% of 2nd year students prefer to practice abroad, 5 of 2nd year students said they would leave medicine, but still stay in the country (Tables 11a 11b). It is seen that among all the respondents, 205 resident Indians, forming 52.16% of the students prefer to practice in their own country, whereas 25 of them (6.36%) preferred to practice abroad. 70 students (17.81% of students) said they had not decided yet depended on various factors. Among the Malaysians, 18 students (4.58%) prefer their own country, 1 student (0.25%) prefers practising abroad 8 students had not decided yet. 7 non-resident Indians (1.78%) wanted to practise in their own country, 6 students (1.52%) abroad 14 students (3.56%) had not decided yet (Table 12). Most students in 1st year (16.7%) 2nd year (7.3%) feel that if they were to go abroad, it would be due to better prospects available. A better financial reward was the next most popular reason for going abroad, with 10.6% of 1st year 6.8% of 2nd year students feeling so (Table 13). The current trend seems to be favoring multi-specialty hospitals over government hospitals. 50% of 1st year students 49.2% of 2nd year students preferred multi-specialty hospitals over other options. The next most sought work setting was Government Hospitals for 1st year students whereas it was private practice among 2nd year students (Table 14). For most students in both 1st year (4.6%) 2nd year (7.9%), hectic schedules seem to be the main reason for leaving medicine. Family obligations seem to affect the decisions of 1st year students (3.7%) more than that compared to 2nd year students (1.7%). It also seems as though 2nd year MBBS students are much more concerned with the competition in medicine (2.8%) than the 1st year students, perhaps due to more exposure to clinical fields (Table 15). Interestingly, exposure to clinically oriented medical profession has DECREASED the students interest to pursue further studies as well as choose a clinical field! Whereas 98% of 1st year students wanted to pursue a post-graduation course, only 94.4% of 2nd year students chose to go in for a post-graduation. Also, while 89.9% of 1st year students wanted to go in for a clinical field, only 84.2% of 2nd year students wanted to go in for a career in a clinically oriented field a very interesting find! (Table 16). There seem to be a dynamic shift in the career choice of the 2nd year MBBS students of the 2006 batch after clinical exposure. About a quarter of the students presently in 2nd year are inclined towards general medicine, compared to just 15.6% of the same students before clinical exposure. On the other hand, figures for a career in surgery have come down from 33.2% to 21.5% after clinics. Interest in pediatrics has also increased almost two-fold after clinical exposure (Table 17). Table 3:What drove students to choose medicine?  Ã‚   1st year 2nd year Total Passion for Medical Science 96 (44.4%) 91 (51.4%) 187 (47.6%) Inspired by Family Members 40 (18.5%) 37 (20.9%) 77 (19.6%) To help the Community 48 (22.2%) 25 (14.1%) 73 (18.6%) Forced by Parents 10 (4.6%) 6 (3.4%) 16 (4.1%) Job Security 4 (1.9%) 27 (15.3%) 31 (7.9%) Prestigious Profession 36 (16.7%) 30 (16.9%) 66 (16.8%) Others 8 (3.7%) 13 (7.3%) 21 (5.3%) Table 4:If not MBBS? 1st Year (n=216) 2nd Year (n=177) Total (n=393) Dental 19 (8.8%) 21 (11.9%) 40 (10.2%) Paramedical/Allied Health Sciences 11 (5.1%) 7 (4%) 18 (4.6%) Engineering 84 (38.9%) 62 (35%) 146 (37.2%) Others 95 (44%) 77 (43.6%) 172 (43.8%) Table 5: Post-graduation 1st year MBBS 2nd year MBBS Total Post-graduation Yes 214 (99.1%) 167 (94.4%) 381 (96.9%) No 0 (0%) 7 (4%) 7 (1.8%) p=0.0034,highly significant Choice of degree MD/MS 198 (91.7%) 153 (86.4%) 351 (89.3%) Diploma 1 (0.46%) 1 (0.56%) 2 (0.51%) DNB 1 (0.46%) 5 (2.8%) 6 (1.5%) MRCP/MRCS 16 (7.4%) 11 (6.2%) 27 (6.9%) χ2=3.935, p=0.268 Table 6: Future career intentions 1st Year (n=216) 2nd Year (n=177) Total (n=393) Clinical Field 187 (86.6%) 149 (84.2%) 336 (85.5%) Non- Clinical Field 2 (0 .93%) 4 (2.3%) 6 (1.5%) Not Decided 27 (12.5%) 14 (7.9%) 33 (8.4%) χ2=.456, p=0.499, not significant Super specialization Yes 172 (79.6%) 114 (64.4%) 286 (72.8%) No 29 (13.4%) 4 (25.4%) 74 (18.8%) Not Decided 15 (6.9%) 18 (10.2%) 33 (8.4%) χ2= 13.489, p=0.0012, highly significant Table 7:Preference for a profession in a CLINICAL Field: 1st year MBBS 2nd year MBBS Total Radiology 27 (12.5%)

The Missile Defense System of the United States Essay -- Argumentative

The Missile Defense System of the United States Abstract   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Ronald Reagan was in the Presidency, he and his staff came up with the idea for a missile defense system that would defend the country in the event of a nuclear missile attack. This system was named "Star Wars" and the basic principal behind it was that it would be a shield that covered all fifty states. However, government officials soon realized that Reagan's defense system was impossible to build, so the program was dropped, but the idea to defend the country against a missile attack stuck around. Today, the U. S. Government is trying to build a new, more realistic missile defense system. However, not all the problems have been worked out, and the U. S. Government should not deploy their missile defense system without conducting further tests. Purpose of Missile Defense   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Imagine that one morning there is breaking news that the U. S. Capitol has just been attacked by a missile strike. The information is plastered on every station, and there's pictures showing Washington D. C. Leveled to the ground. All of this just because in the past few years the U. S. Government tried to develop a defense system to quickly, and for that reason they didn't have adequate tests to determine whether or not the system would work. Furthermore, they wouldn't have been attacked had it not been for them trying to develop this system. Every day, this threat is becoming more of a possibility to the United States. Since this could happen, the U. S. Government shouldn't deploy their defense system unless they conduct further, more realistic tests.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The name of the missile program that is being developed to protect the United States is the National Missile Defense. This program... ...ork. MIT Enterprise Technology Review. Retrieved March 14, 2003, from http://www.technologyreview.com/articles/ postol0402.asp Q&A: son of star wars. (2002, December 17). BBC News. Retrieved March 11, 2003, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/696028.stm Reynolds, M. (2002, December 24). Missile plan faces obstacles; Pentagon value in Bush's proposal to deploy the system in three years, but critics say an essential phase of testing would be left out. Los Angeles Times. Main News; Part 1; Page 1. Warren, D. (2001, May 3). Shooting down the criticisms of Bush's shield: common arguments against the U.S. Missile defense plan, and why they'll never work. The Ottawa Citizen. News, p. A17. Wright, D. & Postol, T. (2000, May 11). Missile defense system won't work. Common Dreams News Center. Retrieved March 6, 2003, from http://www.commondreams.org/views/ 051100-101.htm   

Differential Association Essay -- essays research papers fc

Sutherland’s Differential Association Born August 13, 1883 in Gibbon, Nebraska, Edwin H. Sutherland grew up and studied in Ottawa, Kansas, and Grand Island, Nebraska. After receiving his B.A degree from Grand Island College in 1904, he taught Latin, Greek, History, and shorthand for two years at Sioux Falls College in South Dakota. In 1906 he left Sioux Falls College and entered graduate school at the University of Chicago from which he received his doctorate. (Gaylord, 1988:7-12) While attending the University of Chicago he changed his major from history to sociology. Much of his study was influenced by the Chicago approach to the study of crime that emphasized human behavior as determined by social and physical environmental factors, rather than genetic or personal characteristics. (Gaylord, 1988:7-12) With his studies completed he began work at the University of Minnesota from 1926 to 1929 where his reputation as a leading criminologist was enhanced. At this time, his focus became sociology as a scientific enterprise whose goal was the understanding and control of social problems, including crime. (Gaylord, 1988:13) After his time at Minnesota he moved to Indiana University and founded the Bloomington School of Criminology at Indiana University. While at Indiana, he published 3 books, including Twenty Thousand Homeless Men (1936), The Professional Thief (1937), and the third edition of Principles of Criminology (1939). Finally in 1939 he was elected president of the American Sociological Society, and in 1940 was elected president of the Sociological Research Association. Similar in importance to strain theory and social control theory, Differential Association theory was Sutherland's major sociological contribution to criminology; . These theories all explain deviance in terms of the individual's social relationships. By attributing the cause of crime to the social context of individuals, Differential Association departs from the pathological perspective and biological perspective. "He rejected biological determinism and the extreme individualism of psychiatry, as well as economic explanations of crime. His search for an alternative understanding of crime led to the development of Differential Association theory. In contrast to both classical and biological theories, Differential Associat... ...s Sutherland a pioneer for all criminologists. Works Cited: Akers, Ronald L.. (1996). Is differential association/social learning cultural deviance theory? Criminology. Gaylord, Mark S and John F. Galliher. (1988). The criminology of Edwin Sutherland. Transaction, Inc Jacoby, Joseph E.. (1994). Classics of criminology. Waveland press, Inc. Matseuda, Ross L.. (1988). The current state of differential association theory. Crime and Delinquency (July 1988). Sage Publication Pfohl, Stephen. (1994). Images of deviance and social control. McGraw-Hill, Inc. Skinner, William F. and Anne M. Fream(1997). A social learning theory analysis of computer crime among college student. Journal of research in crime and delinquency. Sage Publication Sutherland, Edwin H.. (1974). Criminology. J.B. Lippincott Company Sutherland, Edwin H.. (1961). White-collar crime. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc Sutherland, Edwin H.. (1937). The professional thief. The university of Chicago. Tittle, Charles R. and Mary Jean Burke(1986). Modeling Sutherland’s theory of differential association: Toward an empirical clarification. Social Forces. Warr, Mark (1993). Parents, Peers, and Delinquency. Social forces.

We need crime prevention, not the death penalty Essay -- essays resear

We Need Crime Prevention, Not the Death Penalty For most crimes committed in the United States a fine, sentence of time in jail or execution is the punishment. However, the death penalty is the most questionable punishment. Is it morally right? Is it effective in deterring crime, primarily murders? Weather or not you agree if it is moral or not, one issue remains. The death penalty is not an effective way to deter crime. The death penalty has existed as long as humans have existed. The quote "an eye for an eye" is found in the Bible. In the middle ages fines, public humiliation and imprisonment were appropriate punishments for all crimes, and death penalty for all murders. Today, Federal law states that the death penalty is to be enforced with convicted criminals for: treason; deserting armed forces during wartime; murder committed by a soldier; kidnapping and murder that involves crossing state lines; murder committed during an airplane hijacking; and of course, homicide. The death penalty is also called for punishment of for: attempting to kill anyone investigating or prosecuting his or her activities; advising, directing, authorizing or assisting in the murder of someone. Also, The Anti-Drug abuse act of 1988 calls for the death penalty for all drug related killings. Along with that, The bill amending sec. 848 to controlled substances act calls for the death penalty or life imprisonment for certain drug offences possession of 10 or more kg of heroin, cocaine, phencyclidine or analogue. Added to that, The drug kingpin act sates the use of death penalty for convicted major drug dealers caught with huge quantities of drugs, over 66 lbs. of heroin and 330 lbs. of cocaine. Even though there are these federal laws requiring the use of the death penalty for the crimes, State laws only consider one crime, murder, to be a capital offense. In the United States alone there have been 4047 executions since 1930, and 188 were from 1977-1996. In 1996, there were a total of 15,168,100 arrests; 33,050 for forcible rape; 1,506,200 involving drug violations and 19,020 for murder and non-negligent manslaughter. The death penalty was enforced 45 times. The death penalty is an expensive punishment, since 1976 the united states have spent 700 million dollars in it. Methods of the death pen... ...s no effect on the deteration of crimes. Statistics show that there is no relationship between the number of crimes committed in death penalty states and the number of crimes committed in non-death penalty states. While a majority of people believes the death penalty is a good punishment for crimes, they do not believe it helps get rid of and prevent crime. Other methods such as increased police officers and a decrease on the availability of handguns are 2 of many alternatives in prevention crimes. Enforcing a harsh punishment for committing a crime is not an effective way to prevent it from happening. Preventing crimes from happening is the most effective way to deter crime. Bibliography "Crimes, Politics and Race" Harvard Journal of law and Public Policy Winter 1997: pg. 405 "Death Penalty Information Center", 1997 http://www.esential.org/dpic/dpic.html (8 Feb. 1998) Nardo, Don Death Penalty San Diego: Lucent Books Inc, 1992 Wekesser, Carol The Death Penalty: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1991 World Almanac and Book of Facts 1998 Mahwah, NJ: world Almanac and Book of Facts, 1997 We need crime prevention, not the death penalty Essay -- essays resear We Need Crime Prevention, Not the Death Penalty For most crimes committed in the United States a fine, sentence of time in jail or execution is the punishment. However, the death penalty is the most questionable punishment. Is it morally right? Is it effective in deterring crime, primarily murders? Weather or not you agree if it is moral or not, one issue remains. The death penalty is not an effective way to deter crime. The death penalty has existed as long as humans have existed. The quote "an eye for an eye" is found in the Bible. In the middle ages fines, public humiliation and imprisonment were appropriate punishments for all crimes, and death penalty for all murders. Today, Federal law states that the death penalty is to be enforced with convicted criminals for: treason; deserting armed forces during wartime; murder committed by a soldier; kidnapping and murder that involves crossing state lines; murder committed during an airplane hijacking; and of course, homicide. The death penalty is also called for punishment of for: attempting to kill anyone investigating or prosecuting his or her activities; advising, directing, authorizing or assisting in the murder of someone. Also, The Anti-Drug abuse act of 1988 calls for the death penalty for all drug related killings. Along with that, The bill amending sec. 848 to controlled substances act calls for the death penalty or life imprisonment for certain drug offences possession of 10 or more kg of heroin, cocaine, phencyclidine or analogue. Added to that, The drug kingpin act sates the use of death penalty for convicted major drug dealers caught with huge quantities of drugs, over 66 lbs. of heroin and 330 lbs. of cocaine. Even though there are these federal laws requiring the use of the death penalty for the crimes, State laws only consider one crime, murder, to be a capital offense. In the United States alone there have been 4047 executions since 1930, and 188 were from 1977-1996. In 1996, there were a total of 15,168,100 arrests; 33,050 for forcible rape; 1,506,200 involving drug violations and 19,020 for murder and non-negligent manslaughter. The death penalty was enforced 45 times. The death penalty is an expensive punishment, since 1976 the united states have spent 700 million dollars in it. Methods of the death pen... ...s no effect on the deteration of crimes. Statistics show that there is no relationship between the number of crimes committed in death penalty states and the number of crimes committed in non-death penalty states. While a majority of people believes the death penalty is a good punishment for crimes, they do not believe it helps get rid of and prevent crime. Other methods such as increased police officers and a decrease on the availability of handguns are 2 of many alternatives in prevention crimes. Enforcing a harsh punishment for committing a crime is not an effective way to prevent it from happening. Preventing crimes from happening is the most effective way to deter crime. Bibliography "Crimes, Politics and Race" Harvard Journal of law and Public Policy Winter 1997: pg. 405 "Death Penalty Information Center", 1997 http://www.esential.org/dpic/dpic.html (8 Feb. 1998) Nardo, Don Death Penalty San Diego: Lucent Books Inc, 1992 Wekesser, Carol The Death Penalty: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1991 World Almanac and Book of Facts 1998 Mahwah, NJ: world Almanac and Book of Facts, 1997

Costing in Banking Service Essay

It does so by describing the partial costs and full cost systems in banking institutions. It then looks at the limitations of these approaches to the current competitive conditions and goes on to consider the applicability of the activity based costing system in the allocation of indirect transformation costs to branches, products and customers. Finally, we will look at the findings of a questionnaire to Spanish savings banks in order to evaluate how widespread these systems are and how they are used in savings banks. We found that direct costs systems predominate in customer and products entries whereas full costs systems are much more widespread in the case of branches. Furthermore, we also found that the use of activity based costs systems is very limited. Keywords: Saving banks Cost structure Management accounting Cost systems Activity based costing. JEL Classification Codes: M41 – Accounting G21 – Banks; Other Depository Institutions. 1. Introduction Historically, management accounting in banking institutions was introduced considerably later in comparison with companies in other sectors. There are a number of reasons for this limited development. This was due, on the one hand, to external causes. For example, it was not until the 80’s that competitive conditions in the banking sector fostered the development of accounting management planning and control systems. On the other hand, there were also internal conditions that had to do with the nature of the banking business and the operations that these companies carry out, which differ significantly to those of other sectors. This hindered the transfer of models that had basically been developed for industrial companies to the financial sector. As regards internal factors, the accounting regulations set down by regulating bodies of the banking system have traditionally been the starting point from which banking institutions have drawn up their accounting information. The purpose of he latter was clearly to address the needs of central banks that used this accounting information in order to supervise and control the solvency of the financial system and to control the relevant variables of monetary policy (Tà ºa and Larriba, 1986, p.37; Cates, 1997, p.51-56; Kimball, 1997, p.24). Furthermore, the environment in which these companies had traditionally operated had been sufficiently stable in order for them not to see the need to improve their management accounting systems (AECA, 1994a, p.12-13). On an internal level, Waden-Berghe (1990, p.569) Rouach and Naulleau (1992, p. 101-102) and Carmona (1994, p.210) point out that the characteristic features of the products and the production process of banks hinder the application of management accounting techniques: the intermediation function they carry out, the permanence on the balance sheet of the main sources of income and expenses, the problematic definition of outputs and input, given that there is no difference between the nature of the raw material obtained via financial markets or deposit taking and the final product (loans), the fixed cost and marginal revenue syndrome, the difficulty in allocating indirect costs to cost objects or the diffuse figure of the customer-supplier. However, the deep transformation of the banking system, and, more specifically, deregulation, disintermediation and innovation processes, have ushered in changes to the competitive behaviour and the information needs of banking institutions. We can therefore assume that the accounting systems of these companies have most probably also evolved and established new conceptual frameworks 1. As a consequence of growing competition in the banking sector and the reduction of financial margins, banking institutions have had to give increasingly greater importance to the planning and control of their non financial costs, which has opened up the debate around the adequacy of the costs systems currently in use in these companies (Scias, 1985, p. 48; Kimball, 1993, p. 5-20; Bos, Bruggink et al., 1994, p.12; Carmona, 1994, p. 213). This essay aims to analyse the characteristics of the costs systems of Spanish savings banks which operate in the universal retail banking segment. In the first place, we will look at the different theoretical models that will enable us to analyse the financial intermediation activity from a microeconomic viewpoint. Secondly, we will go on to describe the characteristics of non financial costs in banking institutions, given that they influence the application of management accounting in these companies. Thirdly, we will put forward a costs classification in savings banks that facilitates the allocation of their non financial costs to different cost objects (centre of responsibility, products, customers and activities). Based on the above, we can then go on to assess the use of different costing systems, looking at both traditional costing systems (partial and full) as well as activity based costing. The study finishes by presenting the results of a questionnaire given to the heads of management control of Spanish savings banks with the aim of finding out which costing systems are currently in use and how they are likely to evolv e in the future. 2. The Production Process in Banking Institutions This section aims to present an overview of the different theoretical approaches that interpret the productive process of banking institutions. According to Bergà ©s and Soria (1993, p. 17-23) the models that explain the productive process of banking institutions can be grouped into three groups: partial decision models, portfolio theory and services production. Let’s look at these in more detail. 2.1. Partial Decision Models Partial models focus either on the assets and investment decisions (loans versus the treasury) or on the composition of the liability structure (capital versus deposits), considering the other part of the balance sheet as an external or exogenous variable. In these models, the banking institution’s balance sheet is 1 We can identify various evolution stages in bank accounting and management; for example, Chisholm and Duncan (1985, p.27-33) have divided its historical evolution into three stages, Faletti (1986, p.88-95) refers to four stages, Rezaee (1991, p.26-28) and Roosevelt and Johnson (1986, p.30-31) have established five stages, and Ernst & Young (1995, p.25-31) outline up to 11 phases. Having said this, the different number of stages by different authors reflect differences in nuances but not in fundamental aspects because the evolution of information drawn up by management accounting in banking institutions may be seen as a continuous process rooted in financial accounting that is evolving towards objectives that are more and more related with tactical and strategic decision making. viewed as the key element, because each of its components is modelled individually (Santomero, 2000, p.4). When loans are regarded as outputs of the banking institution, it is assumed that, given a certain level of exogenously determined deposits, which are not subject to optimization, the company’s management decision is focused on determining what proportion of deposited funds will be allocated to the provision of loans and what proportion will be kept in the treasury. This is due to the fact that the banking institution needs to maintain a certain level of liquid reserves in order to address possible withdrawals of deposits. Obviously, maintenance of this treasury will generate an opportunity cost, so banking institutions will have to minimise this opportunity cost by maintaining the treasury at a minimum level. However, if the treasury that is kept is insufficient, the company exposes itself to a high liquidity risk (Baltensperger, 1980, p.3; and Swank, 1996, p.176). When deposits are regarded as outputs, the problem focuses on determining the optimum balance between deposits and equity (Swank, 1996, p.177). According to this approach, a situation of insolvency could be brought on not only by the mass withdrawal of customer deposits, but also if the value of assets drops below that of liabilities. This scenario is less and less likely the fewer the deposits. It can therefore be minimised by increasing the volume of equity (Baltensperger, 1980, p.1011; Swank, 1996, p.177). However, given that the opportunity cost of equity is greater than the financial cost generated by deposits, in order to maximise profitability the bank need to minimise the bank’s own funds, which increases the possibility of an insolvency scenario and of meeting the ensuing costs associated with it (Baltensperger, 1980, p.13). 2.2. Portfolio Theory Based Models The previous models seek to address the structure of assets or liability management whilst considering the other part of the balance sheet as exogenous. A comprehensive theory of the productive process of banking institutions needs to simultaneously account for the structure of assets and liabilities. The efficient portfolios selection model for banking institutions put forward by Markowitz (1959) and developed by Pyle (1971, p.737-747) concomitantly looks at decisions concerning assets as well as liabilities and gives us a more comprehensive view of the interrelations between assets and liabiliti es. Having said this, it must be acknowledged that although portfolio theory overcomes the limitations of partial models by determining optimum treasury, loans and deposits levels together, it still has its drawbacks. The most relevant to this study has to do with the fact that both partial models and portfolio selection theory regard non-financial costs as irrelevant when it comes to estimating the output level and composition of banking institutions (Swank, 1996, p. 194). 2.3. Models Based on the Production of Services and Real Resources The provision of financial services entails transformation costs which are not contemplated in the abovementioned models. The services production model advocates that the production processes of banking institutions cannot be properly analysed by simply looking at the management of its optimal assets and liabilities structure, but that we also need to take into account the fact that both financial intermediation and the provision of other banking services generate transformation costs, which entail the use of real resources both human and technological (Baltensperger, 1980, p. 27-29). The models developed by Pesek, (1970, p. 357-385); Saving (1977, p. 289-303) and Sealey and Lindley (1977, p.1251-1266) are approaches based on production and cost functions, and enable us to study the banking institution’s behaviour from the point of view of profit maximisation. According to the above models, the activity of banking institutions consists of providing a range of different financial services (both intermediation and other kinds of services), the production of which can be expressed in accordance with a production function. The inputs of this production function are a combination of different types of factors consisting of real resources whereas the outputs are different possible combinations of assets, liabilities and services. Hence the production function, along with the balancing of the accounts between assets, liquidity and liabilities, interest rates that are externally set by the market and legally established coefficients, make up the restrictions under which banking institutions must operate and try to maximise their profits. These profits will ultimately depend on the difference between revenue generated from the sale of their services on the one hand and the total costs of their inputs both financial and non financial on the other (Sealey and Lindley, 1977, p. 1255; Santomero, 2000, p.3). The following sections will discuss the problematic of the costing structure of real resources in banking institutions and look at how these are classified for management accounting purposes. This will be followed by an overview of the different costing systems identified in the literature, partial costs, full costs and activity based costing. And finally, we will present the findings of an empirical research study concerning the costing systems used by Spanish savings banks. 3. The Cost Structure of Banking Institutions Before we proceed to assess the different existing cost systems and their application to banking, we would like to highlight some of the characteristic features of the banking business which influence the cost structure of its costing systems. These characteristic features can be summed up as follows (Sloane, 1991, p.76-79; Sapp, Rebischke et al., 1991, p.56-57): †¢ Variable work load: the volume of operations fluctuates enormously from one moment to the next, which obviates the problem of capacity management, given that at certain times there are â€Å"peaks† whilst at other times there are â€Å"valleys† which means that these resources are underused. †¢ High fixed costs: resources are usually allocated to covering â€Å"peaks† of activity. However, the cost of these resources does not vary with the volume of transactions, because they have a large fixed component. †¢ Predictability of the activity: although the demand for services tends to be hi ghly variable, it is relatively easy to predict, because it follows a cyclic behaviour pattern, which offers the possibility of turning part of fixed costs into variable ones by means of outsourcing. †¢ Mass services production activities: a comparison can be drawn between the high volume of repetitive operations in banking institutions and traditional industrial mass commodity manufacturing, which facilitates the use of methodologies that originated in industry and the setting up of a standard costing system. †¢ Joint production and an undefined product: the banking product is physically indefinable which makes it more complex to identify. For example, when a banking institution issues a loan to a customer, the latter must open up a current account to meet the loan payments. If on top of this the customer orders a cheque book on his current account and takes out a life insurance policy, we have four interrelated products. †¢ Low cost traceability: given that we are dealing with joint production activities with elevated fixed and indirect costs there are many resources that are shared by activities, customers, products and centres of responsibility. As far as we see it, the most significant factors that influence the applicability of different cost systems in banking institutions are on the one hand, the significant weight of indirect costs in relation to cost objects, which makes it difficult to trace them in relation to cost objects. Similarly, given that a large part of the operations carried out by banking institutions are of a repetitive nature and susceptible to standardisation, this makes it feasible to consider calculating the costs of these operations and allocating them to cost objects, and to introduce the use of standard costs as a planning and control instrument. 4. Costs Classification in Banking Institutions The classification of the non financial costs of banking institutions may prove useful in studying the applicability of different cost systems to banking institutions. Although we can make different classifications of these costs, the most relevant for our purposes is the difference between transformation and overhead costs (AECA, 1994a, p.61-62): â€Å"transformation costs are costs that are generated in profit centres and in operational cost or general services centres. In general, the costs of these centres are directly or indirectly related to the consumption of products and services on the part of customers†. At the same time, transformation costs can be divided into direct and indirect costs, depending on their relation to cost objects (AECA, 1994a, p.61): †¢ Direct costs, are those costs that can be unequivocally and directly allocated to cost objects, in other words their allocation is controlled economically in an individualised fashion. †¢ Indirect costs, are costs that cannot be directly allocated to cost objects because there is no exact allocation of funds that enables us to estimate the consumption of these costs by cost bearers, It should be noted that a significant number of transformation costs of banking institutions are dual in nature when viewed from the previous classification criterion, to the extent that certain transformation costs can be direct with respect to the branches network but indirect in relation to products and customers (De la Cuesta, 1996, p.85-87). In banking institutions, transformation costs basically correspond to personnel costs, depreciations and other general costs, which although they are difficult to allocate to customers and products, are generally easier to allocate to responsibility centres (Cole, 1995, p.152). The second costs category corresponds to overhead costs, which are generated in the bank’s organisational centres. These costs are generated by the various functions related to management, administration, organisation and control. In general, these are indirect in relation to all the cost objects. These costs are treated as costs assigned to support all the company’s functions, and as such they are independent of production volume, the existing product lines and of the markets they serve (AECA, 1994b, p.58).

Corruption Essay

Corruption Todays realness problems are revolved roughly rot. One of brazils biggest problems is the subversive activity. match to annual data Assuntos de Governanca, (Govern Discussion), published in 1996 by Banco Mundial, there is an upward trim down in the index that measures the efficiency in attacking get downion in brazil nut. This data which assesses 212 countries and territories has shown that the corruption in brazil has grown discontinuous since 2003. It reached its worst level in 2006. When it reached 47. on a scale of 0 of century ( beingness 100 an evaluation more positive). point when brazil nut is compared to other countries from South the States such as Chile, Costa Rica, and Uruguay, Brazil is soundless leading counattempt in corruption. A nonher study made at the University of Fiesco, has shown that corruption in Brazil has exist around one to sixty-nine one thousand thousands of Reals (Brazils currency). In order to cream those problems, we would a ffect three chief(prenominal) facts to try to solve this situation, or at least try to settle down since its a huge problem. So the first main point is severe impunity to our politics corruptors.The nearly consequential problem that difficult the combat of corruption is the culture of impunity, which is still in truth visible in Brazil. Brazilians solelyice flora to whoever has the roughly currency to pay the best righteousnessyers. This means that it does not matter what damage you have through to Brazils company, you result not be persecuted. In some cases, most of violators will not stay in jail for their full amount of sequence sentenced. Moreover, the fact that our politics has privilege at the forum and are judge otherwise from ordinary citizens, also contributes to impunity.To combat corruption, we request a different govern we urgency a new reform administrative. Our law has to be made to protect our ordering equally, everybody as well as being judged exactly the same counsel. Proven corruption leadfully to be penalise by death or life imprisonment, overly of course the immediate return of existence coffers values. Only in five years, Brazil has already tallied a misuse of man funds of almost 100 billion dollar, which would be allowing investments of national reflection.This problem has to be solved immediately. A second important point to mention is how our society acts somewhat our giving medication. Since we already exist that our government works for themselves, our society needs to start doing some topic also. at that place are several projects that have been mentioned at the government to be accepted, but our society has an important role at this time. In order for these projects to be accepted, our state needs to work together by fashioning protects everywhere around the country.So this focussing our government will facial expression the storm of the population, and will know that the whole population has a voice. That they will still contribute to improve our country. Brazils population has to believe that they can do something to help, but do more than just believe they have to do it Brazils population is degenerate of race working for themselves, and are also tired to see that the majority of our laws do not work for everybody equally. Another aspect to advert at is education.While our government is too busy stealing bills from our population, our take ins feel this impact at the schools. The largest chunk of the cash that should be used in our kids education is going to the governments pocket. Of course who is going to stupefy this situation? Our next generation of youth. With no education there is no knowledge. Whenever these kids strike enough age to vote they will be lost and without knowing their rights. not knowing their rights there is no way they will be able to criticize, or even claim for something in the future.Where would this world be without education? Talk rough re al corruption right there. provided in order to solve the cash issue in Brazil we need to get our priorities straight on what the money goes to, and not in our governments pockets. The education of the youth in Brazil should be the most important thing to the government, because one day they will be the leaders of this country. They need to be taught their rights and laws. To know how to be treated equal as well as be punished equally too. If the government realizes this, Brazil would not be such a corrupt place.